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Forcible Responses to Cyber Operations: Self-Defence, Necessity, Countermeasures
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Acknowledgments
s. VII
1. Introduction
s. 1
2. Self-Defence
s. 4
2.1. Introduction
s. 4
2.2. Legal Basis of Self-Defence in International Law
s. 4
2.3. Self-Defence Conditions & Restrictions in the Cyber Context
s. 9
2.3.1. Armed Attack
s. 10
2.3.1.1. Cyber Armed Attack
s. 11
2.3.1.2. Scale and Effects
s. 12
2.3.1.3. Composite Armed Attack
s. 21
2.3.1.4. ‘Specific Intention of Harming’
s. 23
2.3.1.5. Armed Attack and Related Concepts
s. 25
2.3.1.5.1. Use of Force, Prohibition of
s. 25
2.3.1.5.2. Use of Force and Armed Attack
s. 29
2.3.1.5.3. Use of Force, Aggression, and Armed Attack
s. 31
2.3.1.5.4. Relevant Norm(s) of Jus Cogens
s. 33
2.3.2. The Author of the Armed Attack and the Target of Self-Defence
s. 40
2.3.3. Anticipatory Self-Defence
s. 53
2.3.4. Necessity and Proportionality
s. 62
2.3.5. Immediacy
s. 67
2.3.6. The Role of the Security Council
s. 68
2.3.7. Collective Self-Defence
s. 70
2.4. Conclusion
s. 72
3. Necessity
s. 74
3.1. Introduction
s. 74
3.2. Necessity in Customary International Law
s. 74
3.3. The Role of Necessity among Circumstances Precluding Wrongfulness
s. 77
3.4. Customary Necessity Defence versus Treaty Emergency Clauses
s. 78
3.5. Necessity: Justification or Excuse?
s. 81
3.6. Conditions & Limits of the Necessity in the Cyber Context
s. 84
3.6.1. Essential Interest
s. 85
3.6.2. Grave and Imminent Peril
s. 93
3.6.2.1. Gravity
s. 94
3.6.2.2. Imminence
s. 97
3.6.3. The Sole Means
s. 99
3.6.4. Assessment of Competing Interests
s. 101
3.6.5. Non-contribution to the Occurrence of Necessity Situation
s. 103
3.6.6. Use of Force in Necessity
s. 105
3.6.6.1. State Practice in the United Nations Charter Era
s. 106
3.6.6.2. Views in the Legal Literature
s. 112
3.7. Conclusion
s. 120
4. Countermeasures
s. 122
4.1. Introduction
s. 122
4.2. Countermeasure: What It Is and What It Is Not
s. 123
4.3. The Relationship between Countermeasures and Security Council Enforcement Measures
s. 125
4.4. Countermeasures Conditions & Restrictions in the Cyber Context
s. 127
4.4.1. Antecedent Internationally Wrongful Act
s. 127
4.4.2. Target of Countermeasures
s. 132
4.4.3. Procedural Conditions
s. 135
4.4.3.1. Prior Notification & Seeking Negotiations
s. 135
4.4.3.2. The Relationship between Countermeasures and Dispute Settlement Procedure
s. 138
4.4.4. The Instrumental Function
s. 141
4.4.4.1. Purpose
s. 141
4.4.4.2. Reversibility
s. 142
4.4.4.3. Duration
s. 143
4.4.5. Proportionality
s. 144
4.4.6. Prohibited Countermeasures
s. 148
4.4.7. Forcible Countermeasures
s. 151
4.4.8. Collective Countermeasures
s. 158
4.5. Evaluation of the International Law Commission’s Approach
s. 167
4.6. Conclusion
s. 170
5. Concluding Remarks
s. 172
Bibliography
s. 177
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